Anthropology of wine basics

Paper for my Anthro of Wine Course, for the first exams.

1. Origin and development of wine from earliest to modern form. Dendrochronology indicates vineyards existed in forests along the southern shore of the Caspian sea as early as the Pleistocene era and continued through the Neolithic in farming communities.

Despite the wild proliferation of Vitis Vinifera Sylvestris, for true domestication, one must look to the transcaucus in 5,000 BC.

Early evidence for larger scale winemaking is tartaric acid residue from a series of large jars in Godin Tepe, a small village in the transcaucus, situated along one of the tributaries of the Tigris in the Zagros Mountains in what is present-day Iran.

Excavation of the Neolithic village of Hajji Firuz Tepe (also in Iran) yielded potsherds which also were laced with tartaric acid, dating nearly 2,000 years earlier.

Domestication can be determined from archaeobotanical remains of pips, wood and skins, the residual bits of the plant after wine production.

Although Vitis Vinifera is responsible for all winemaking grapes, clonal selection has been used to cull less desirable traits and select for those that best serve quality wine production. Early domestication moved from a selection of more fruitful vines in the natural habitat, through planting of male and female vines to encourage rates of fertilization, as early vines were gendered and needed both male and female plants present to fertilize and yield fruit.

Farmers noticed that some plants became hermaphroditic, that both sexes were present on the same plant. As male plants did not produce fruit, hermaphroditic plants were more productive and desirable than mixed discrete genders, and male plants became redundant.

Eventually female plants too became less desirable, giving way to the exclusive planting of hermaphroditic vines.

Examination of carbonized grape pips shows the elongated neck and scaled down body of the pip, result of a larger non-reproducing berry cultivated by humans, versus the shorter necked, plumper pip required for reproductive capacity in the non-cultivated grape.

Cultivated vines also had thicker bark and canes, to support more grapes; larger diameter of canes, an elliptical cross section, and plumper dormant buds to support and produce larger clusters of fruit; large shallowly sinused leaves with more surface area for photosynthesis; a thicker joint at the stem where it meets the fruit; and thicker clusters of larger fruit.

Domestication theories include the well-known Noah tale, which dovetails with the antediluvian Gilgamesh legend to sketch out an account of a vineyard planted on Ararat by survivors of a great flood, and found by an ancient Mesopotamian king.

The subsequent cultivation of grapevines in the area bears out the likely truth of the Noah hypothesis.

Cultivation and wine development by the ancient Egyptians is well documented, but the spread of viticulture to Europe is largely due to the Greeks.

Grape cultivation spread through the Aegean, Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, and by 1,000 BC had spread to central and northern Italy, Provence, North Africa and Spain, driven by the Greek empire.

Mt. Vesuvius’ plinian explosion in 79 AD and the fallout that resulted, as well as the lava flows and satellite destruction, crushed wine production near the Aegean and Mediterranean driving grape cultivation outward and upward.Fortunately, climate in Europe had warmed, and external wine production in the Greek empire was feasible.

However, the empire never fully recovered from the economic damage done by Vesuvius and waned, making way for the rise of the Roman Empire. The Romans’ fondness for the grape is legendary, and Dionysus gave way only to Bacchus in celebrating wine.

In 0-100 AD, Rome ruled Canaan and the Levant, where Judaism was prevalent. This loose provincial rule did not interfere with religious observance, and the use of wine was linked to the Seder rite.

When the capitol of Rome was moved to Constantinople at the time of the Pax Romana in 300 AD, Christianity had begun to spread, and quickly adopted the Seder into Mass, further cementing the use of wine in religion and tying it to imperial wealth.

Roman Catholicism continued the preservation of wine, and also provided motivation to increase the effective cultivation for taste and prestige, by strengthening ties to religion and by linking parallel institutions of church and state.

When Islam outlawed intoxication by 650 AD, Roman influence on outlying areas of the empire was already waning. As the Persian Empire converted to Islam, the grape and the Roman Catholic Church were chased to Europe and out of Mesopotamia.

Enter Charlemagne, and his profound influence on winemaking and viticulture. He was the first ruler to take an active hand in viticulture, and passed laws regulating the production methods of wine, including prohibitions against treading grapes with the feet and storage of wine in animal skins. His law on winemakers selling as much of their own product for consumption as they wish is still respected today.

The advent of the Crusades further fueled the expansion of the Roman Catholic Church, by streamlining land acquisition, and placing that land in the hands of the Benedictine monks, who sought a more artisanal aspect of winemaking. Benedictine monasteries still hold some of the best terroir in Europe.

The crusaders also spread European cultivars, and introduced Levantine cultivars into European viticulture, such as the syrah.

The Benedictine adherence to monastic principles waned, ironically due to the excellence of their wine and the prices it commanded. In 1098, there was a schism, and a small number of monks separated from the Benedictines, to seek a more austere and studious way of life.

The Cistercian order, now known as the Trappists, is almost solely responsible for the refinement of wine and winemaking in Europe. Identification of wine strains, creation of clos’ and the understanding of terroir may also be laid at their door.

Cistercian influence also propelled wine into modernity with the use of oak barrels to age it.

As winemaking grew in excellence and prestige through France and Germany, nobles in the north also got into the game, birthing the feudal system in their need to acquire and cultivate more of the Cote d’Or, Loire valley and Burgundy.

Question #3 Discussion of the three components of good wine.

There are eight recognized noble grape varieties, of grapes which stand alone to make good wine without adulteration by blending, and which are cultivated around the world. Nevertheless, thousands of other recognized cultivars are grown and some excellent wines are made from them.

The hunt for a burgundy-like wine is the hunt to merge terroir and grape variety, and ripen the fruit before harvesting.

Terroir is a hotly contested quality, mostly between those who have access to good terroir and those who don’t.

The physical components of terroir are complex all by themselves. Latitude determines the amount of sun during the growing season. Elevation affects the temperature and oxygen exposure of the area, exposure is used to modify the effects of climate and temperature, climatic patterns affect the growth and dormancy periods as well as best growth behavior of the vines, slope affects drainage and exposure, geology determines the root access of the vines and the soil lends its mineral content to the flavor characteristics.

Terroir also has a mystical quality, the poetry of the earth and the story behind it, that somehow influences the wine, and certainly the vignerons.

Grape ripeness determines how much fermentation occurs in winemaking. When grapes ripen, natural sugars are stored in the fruit as energy products of photosynthesis.

After harvest, when yeasts are introduced to the macerated fruit, these sugars are the food for the yeast, determining the full percentage of alcohol in the finished wine.

Without the full ripeness of the grape, the raw materials for proper development during maturation and fermentation are insufficient, and the final product will show the difference.

The noble grapes are incredibly versatile, but in the alchemical mix of terroir and variety, the trick is pairing the right grape for the right terroir.

For the wine to be great, the vine has to suffer, the saying goes, and the mix of grape and soil determines the degree of suffering.

The roots must go down deeply, so there must not be too much water, or too high a water table.  The vine must get enough sun for ripeness, but not too much to trigger explosive growth. The flavor of the grape must mix with the minerals of the earth so as not to conflict.

Finding cultivars that work well in some areas and not in others requires experimentation, and is fairly unpredictable.

Latitude helps, as is seen in the cultivation of pinot noir in Burgundy and Oregon, but doesn’t determine the absolute best producer.

In the end, the trick is to get the magic right.

There is no perfect formula, but oddly enough the basis for experimentation is the same as the Cistercians perfected centuries ago. Examine the soil, check for agreement between the grape and its suitability for the terroir, and make sure to get the chemistry right on the agricultural side.

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